Sociology Alevel Aqa Essays

Sociology Alevel Aqa Essays Sociology Alevel Aqa Essay Sociology Alevel Aqa Essay Essay Topic: Amy Tan Short Stories Sociology AS at Knights Unit 1: Families and Households Unit 2: Education with Research Methods Revision pack Haberdashers’ Aske’s Federation Sixth Form Mrs Griffiths: [emailprotected] org. uk Mr Roaf: [emailprotected] org. uk 2012 Unit 1 exam: Thursday 17th May, am Unit 2 exam: Friday 25th May, pm Easter Revision: tbc AS Syllabus: AQA Sociology GCE (new specification) Unit 1: Families and Households (SCLY1) * Worth 40% of your AS and 20% of your final A Level * Written paper, 1 hour * 60 marks available Unit 2: Education with Research Methods (SCLY2) * Worth 60% of your AS and 30% of your final A Level * Written paper, 2 hours 90 marks available Timetable * Use your revision checklists to draw up a timetable for revision leading up to the exam. Make sure you cover everything, but make sure it is manageable – you can’t spend every minute working, so allow yourself some time off, both short breaks and occasional days or half days. * Try http://getrevising. co. uk/ Resources * Handouts and powerpoints from lessons are available on the shared drive and on the VLE. * Additional revision resources will be available to download from the VLE * Use the list of websites in this pack to help you identify other useful revision resourcesAQA SCLY1 Unit 1: Families and Households There are 3 sections – choose the CORRECT one, Families and Households (should be section B), and answer all the questions from that section. Time allowed: 1 hour Maximum marks: 60 Time per mark = max 1 min. Questions carrying 24 marks should be answered in continuous prose and you will be marked on your ability to use good English, to organise information clearly and to use specialist vocabulary where appropriate. Possible Question outlines| Marks| Timing| 06| definition of key term, e. g. primary socialisation’| 2 marks| lt;2 mins| To get full marks for this question, you need to explain the term and give a supporting example. Possible questions: * Explain what is meant by ‘primary socialisation’ (Item 2A, line 7). (2 marks) (specimen paper) * Explain what is meant by the ‘expressive role’ (Item 2A, line 5). (2 marks) (January 2009) * Explain what is meant by ‘serial monogamy’ (Item 2A). (2 marks) (June 2010) * Explain what is meant by ‘net migration’ (Item 2A). (2 marks) (January 2011) * Explain what is meant by the ‘social construction’ of childhood (Item 2A). 2 marks) (June 2011) | 07| 2 examples of a particular idea or reasons for a change, e. g. two ways in which childhood has become ‘protected and privileged’| 4 marks| lt;4 mins| To get full marks you need to explain two things, supported by examples that highlight change or increase, if this is specified in the question. Possible questions: * Suggest two ways in which childhood has become . a specially protected and privileged time of life. (Item 2A, lines 4 . 5). (4 marks) (specimen paper) * Suggest two ways in which ‘family life may have a harmful effect on women’ (Item 2A, lines 6 – 7). 4 marks) (January 2009) * Explain the difference between a family and a household (Item 2A). (4 marks) (June 2009) * Suggest two reasons why lone-parent families are more likely to be headed by a female. (4 marks) (June 2009) * Suggest two reasons why women might delay having children (Item 2A). (4 marks) (January 2010) * Suggest two ways in which the position of children could be said to have improved over the last one hundred years. (4 marks) (January 2010) * Suggest two reasons why there has been an increase in cohabitation (Item 2A). 4 marks) (June 2010) * Suggest two reasons why people may migrate to the United Kingdom, apart from that referred to in Item 2A. (4 marks) (January 2011) * Suggest two ways, apart from those mentioned in Item 2A, in which government policies and/or laws may shape the experiences of children today. (4 marks) (June 2011)| 08| 3 reasons for s omething e. g. change in divorce rate| 6 marks| lt;6 mins| To get full marks you need to explain three things, supported by examples that highlight change or increase, if this is specified in the question.Possible questions: * Suggest three reasons for the increase in the divorce rate since 1969. (6 marks) (specimen paper) * Suggest three reasons for the decrease in the death rate since 1900. (6 marks) (January 2009) * Identify three ways in which childhood may not be a positive experience for some children. (6 marks) (June 2010) * Identify three ways in which greater ethnic diversity has contributed to family diversity (6 marks) (January 2011) * Identify three reasons why the birth rate has fallen since 1900. 6 marks) (June 2011)| Questions 06, 07 and 08 may be any combination of marks, adding up to a total of 12. | | | | | 09 | essay question| 24 marks| 4min plan20 min| To reach the higher level marks, you need to demonstrate accurate sociological knowledge and understanding, and apply it directly to the topic in the question. Support your answer with evidence and demonstrate how this answers the question. Possible questions: * Examine the ways in which social policies and laws may influence families and households. (24 marks) (specimen paper) * Examine the ways in which childhood can be said to be socially constructed. 24 marks) (January 2009) * Examine the reasons for changes in birth rates and family size since 1900. (24 marks) (June 2009) * Examine the ways in which government policies and laws may affect the nature and extent of family diversity. (24 marks) (January 2010) * Examine the reasons for, and the consequences of, the fall in the death rate since 1900. (24 marks) (June 2010) * Examine the reasons for changes in the patterns of marriage and cohabitation in the last 40 years or so. (24 marks) (January 2011) * Examine the reasons for changes in the divorce rate since 1969. 24 marks) (June 2011)| 10| essay question with reference to item| 24 marks| 4min plan20 min| To reach the higher level marks for this question, you have to successfully interpret material and apply it to answering the question, and explicitly refer to the item, make it clear how your discussion is answering the question. It is acceptable to repeat key language from the question and item when doing this, however, don’t simply make statements such as and this shows that the it no longer makes sense to talk about the patriarchal family. This is not good enough, you must explain how your discussion of relevant evidence answers the question.Refers to Item X, but on this occasion you are asked to use Item X in your answer, you must do this, to get the full marks. Possible 11 questions * Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that it no longer makes sense to talk about the patriarchal family. (Item 2B). (24 marks) (Specimen paper) * Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm. (24 marks) (January 2009) * Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that gender roles and relationships have become more equal in modern family life. 24 marks) (June 2009) * Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the Marxist view that the main role of the family is to serve the interests of capitalism. (24 marks) (January 2010) * Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that, in today’s society, the family is losing its functions. (24 marks) (June 2010) * Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that the modern family has become more child-centred. (24 marks) (January 2011) * Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the contribution of feminist sociologists to an understanding of family roles and relationships. 24 marks) (June 2011)| | Revision Checklist Unit 1: Families and Households 1 Changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation, separation, divorce, child-bearing and the life-course, and the divers ity of contemporary family and household structures * Marriage: fall in number of marriages, later age of first marriage. * Cohabitation: growth of cohabitation, greater acceptability of cohabitation, types (e. g. trial marriage, long term partnership). * Separation and divorce: legal position, increase in divorce after 1969, reasons for divorce; remarriages and reconstituted families. Child-bearing: number of children, age at which women have first child, changes in parenting practices; lone parent families; beanpole families. * Life course: consideration of range of possibilities, including living alone (singletons), grandparents. 2 The relationship of the family to the social structure and social change, with particular reference to the economy and to state policies * Functionalist views: the importance of the nuclear family, the universality of the family, changing functions, how the nuclear family ‘fits’ modern society. Marxist views: the family as part of the ideo logical state apparatus, as an agent of social control. * Feminist views: patriarchy; liberal, radical and Marxist feminism. * Foucault: surveillance of family life, internalisation of norms. * The New Right: decline of the family, demonisation of single parents, fatherless families, uncontrollable children; Murray’s view of the underclass; need for a return to ‘traditional’ family values. * Some key government policies affecting families, with more detail on the most recent (post-1997). Post-1997 government policies assessed in relation to the theories. * Current policy positions of the main parties assessed in relation to the theories. 3 The nature and extent of changes within the family, with reference to gender roles, domestic labour and power relationships * Gender roles within families: functionalist, feminist, New Right and other views. * The domestic division of labour – changing nature of housework and home-related activities related to changing r oles of men and women and to masculinity and femininity, both in and beyond the home. Decision-making and power relations within households. * Consequences of unequal power: the ‘dark side of the family’, domestic violence, child abuse, mental illness. 4 The nature of childhood, and changes in the status of children in the family and society * The social construction of childhood: how childhood differs over time and between cultures; ways in which childhood is marked as separate from other stages of life. * Children and (paid) work: legal situation in UK; comparison with other countries. * Children as actors within families; the rights and responsibilities of children today. Demographic trends in the UK since 1900; reasons for changes in birth rates, death rates and family size * For each of the three areas of change (birth rates, death rates and family size) students should be aware of the trend, of possible reasons for it and of some cross-cultural/global comparisons. * Birth rates (and fertility rates): falling availability of contraception/family planning; children more likely to survive; cost of raising children; later age of marriage; women giving priority to work, etc. * Death rates: falling higher life expectancy; better health care, protection and treatment for life threatening illness, etc. Family size: falling reasons similar to birth rate but focus on decisions on individual reasons. AQA SCLY2 Unit 2: Education with Research Methods There are 2 sections – choose the CORRECT one, Education (should be section A), and answer all the questions in that section. Time allowed: 2 hours Maximum marks: 90 Time per mark = max 1 1/3 min. Questions with more than 12 marks should be answered in continuous prose and you will be marked on your ability to use good English, to organise information clearly and to use specialist vocabulary where appropriate.The paper has five questions: You are advised to spend 50 minutes on Questions 01 to 04 Y ou are advised to spend 30 minutes on Questions 05 You are advised to spend 40 minutes on Questions 06-09 No| Possible Question outlines| Marks| Timing| 01| definition of key term, e. g. ‘hidden curriculum’| 2 marks| lt;2 mins| Possible questions: * Explain what is meant by the term ‘compensatory’ education. (2 marks) (specimen paper) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘cultural capital’. (2 marks) (January 2009) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘ethnocentric curriculum’. 2 marks) (January 2010) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘vocational’ education. (2 marks) (June 2010) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘cultural deprivation’. (2 marks) (January 2011) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘immediate gratification’. (2 marks) (June 2011)| 02| Explain 3 factorse. g. 3 reasons for boys’ underachievement| 6 marks| lt;6 mins| Possible questions: * Suggest three material factors tha t might cause working-class educational underachievement. (6 marks)(specimen paper) * Suggest three reasons for gender differences in subject choice. 6 marks) (January 2009) * Suggest three ways in which Marxists see school as being similar to the world of work. (6 marks) (January 2010) * Suggest three reasons for boys’ educational under-achievement. (6 marks) (June 2010) * Identify three educational policies that may have contributed to social class differences in achievement. (6 marks) (January 2011) * Identify three policies that may promote the marketisation of education. (6 marks) (June 2011)| 03| Outline some reasons for something e. g. ender differences in subject choice| 12 marks| lt;12 mins| Possible questions: * Outline some of the reasons why different pupil subcultures exist in schools. (12 marks) (specimen paper) * Outline some of the policies introduced by governments to create an education market in the United Kingdom. (12 marks) (January 2009) * Outline some o f the ways in which the labelling process may lead to educational under-achievement for some pupils. (12 marks) (January 2010) * Outline some of the ways in which cultural deprivation may lead to educational under-achievement for working-class pupils. 12 marks) (June 2010) * Outline some of the ways in which factors outside the education system have resulted in improved educational achievement for girls. (12 marks) (January 2011) * Outline some of the functions that the education system may perform. (12 marks) (June 2011)| 04| Essay question:Using material from Item A and elsewhere†¦e. g. assess the claim ‘the main function of education†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢| 20 marks| lt;30 mins| Possible questions: * Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that ‘the main function of education is to maintain a value consensus in society’ (Item A, lines 7 – 8). 20 marks) (specimen paper) * Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that â₠¬Ëœethnic differences in educational achievement are primarily the result of school factors’ (Item A, lines 5 – 6) (20 marks) (January 2009) * Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that gender differences in educational achievement are primarily the ‘result of changes in wider society’ (Item A, lines 6 – 7). (20 marks) (January 2010) * Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that the main aim of education policies in the last 25 years has been to create an education market. 20 marks) (June 2010) * Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that the education system exists mainly to select and prepare young people for their future work roles. (20 marks) (January 2011) * Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that factors and processes within the school are the main cause of differences in the educational achievement of different social groups. (20 marks) (June 2011)| 05| Method s in contextUsing material from Item B and elsewhere†¦e. g. Assess he strengths and limitations of one of the following methods (observation / official statistics) for investigating teacher attitudes towards minority ethnic group pupils| 20 marks| lt;30 mins| Question 05 requires you to apply your knowledge and understanding of sociological research methods to the study of a particular issue in education. You will need to read Item B and answer the question / questions that follow. Question 05 is worth 20 marks and uses the functional word assess, you will need to carefully read Item B, and identify the ‘hooks’, clues written into the Item about material to include in your answer.To get full marks for this question, you have to successfully interpret material and apply it to answering the question, and explicitly refer back to the question, make it clear how your discussion is answering the question. It is acceptable to repeat key language from the question when do ing this, however, don’t simply make statements such as and this shows how useful observation is for investigating teacher attitudes. This is not good enough, you must explain how your discussion of relevant evidence answers the question.Possible questions: * Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of one of the following methods for investigating teachers’ attitudes towards minority ethnic group pupils: EITHER participant observation OR questionnaires. (20 marks) (specimen paper) * Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of one of the following methods for investigating boys’ underachievement: EITHER (i) official statistics OR (ii) unstructured interviews. 20 marks) (January 2009) * Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of one of the following methods for investigating the effect of material deprivation on educational achievement: EITHER (i) un structured interviews OR (ii) offi cial statistics. (20 marks) (January 2010) * Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of one of the following methods for investigating anti-school subcultures: EITHER (i) group interviews OR (ii) non-participant observation. 20 marks) (June 2010) * Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of one of the following methods for investigating the role of parents in pupils’ achievement: EITHER (i) questionnaires OR (ii) unstructured interviews. (20 marks) (January 2011) * Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of one of the following methods for investigating truancy from school: EITHER (i) official statistics OR (ii) participant observation. (20 marks) (June 2011)| 06| Definition of key term, e. . ‘triangulation’| 2 marks| lt;2 mins| For these questions, you can draw examples from any area of sociology with which you a re familiar. Possible questions: * Explain what is meant by the term ‘triangulation’. (2 marks) (specimen paper) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘longitudinal’ study. (2 marks) (January 2009) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘hypothesis’. (2 marks) (January 2010) * Explain what is meant by the term ‘secondary’ data. (2 marks) (June 2010) * Explain what is meant by ‘primary’ data. 2 marks) (January 2011) * Explain what is meant by ‘validity’ in sociological research. (2 marks) (June 2011) | 07 and 08| Evaluation of methodse. g. 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of using official statistics| 4 marks| lt;4 marks| This question requires you to evaluate a method. Explaining the method or identifying the advantage / disadvantage is not sufficient; make sure you give an example and fully explain the advantage / disadvantage. Possible questions: * Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of a longitudinal st udy. 4 marks) (specimen paper) * Suggest two disadvantages that sociologists may find when using unstructured interviews. (4 marks) (specimen paper) * Identify two sampling techniques used in sociological research. (4 marks) (January 2009) * Suggest two disadvantages of using media reports in sociological research. (4 marks) (January 2009) * Suggest two advantages of using official statistics in sociological research. (4 marks) (January 2010) * Suggest two problems that researchers may face when actively participating in the group they are studying. 4 marks) (January 2010) * Suggest two factors that may influence a sociologist’s choice of research topic. (4 marks) (June 2010) * Suggest two problems of using personal documents in sociological research. (4 marks) (June 2010) * Suggest two disadvantages that sociologists might find when using structured interviews. (4 marks) (January 2011) * Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of using laboratory experiments in sociologic al research. (4 marks) (January 2011) * Explain the difference between a sampling frame and a sample. 4 marks) (June 2011) * Suggest two problems of using documents in sociological research. (4 marks) (June 2011)| 09| Essay question:e. g. Examine some of the problems sociologists may find in using experiments| 20 marks| lt;30 mins| Possible questions: * Examine the disadvantages some sociologists may find when using official statistics in their research. (20 marks) (specimen paper) * Examine the problems some sociologists may face when using experiments in their research. (20 marks) (January 2009) Examine the extent to which practical issues are the most important influence when selecting research methods and a research topic. (20 marks) (January 2010) * Examine the problems some sociologists find with using postal questionnaires in their research. (20 marks) (June 2010) * Examine the advantages of using personal documents and historical documents in sociological research. (20 marks ) (January 2011) * Examine the problems that some sociologists may face when using different kinds of experiments in their research. (20 marks) (June 2011)Revision Checklist Part One of Unit 2: Education 1 The role and purpose of education, including vocational education and training, in contemporary society * Functionalist and New Right views of the role and purpose of education: transmission of values, training workforce * Marxist and other conflict views of the role and purpose of education: social control, ideology, hegemony; ‘deschoolers’ (Illich, Friere): socialisation into conformity by coercion * Vocational education and training: the relationship between school and work:human capital, training schemes, correspondence theory. Differential educational achievement of social groups by social class, gender and ethnicity in contemporary society * Statistics on educational achievement by class, gender and ethnicity; trends over time * Social class and educational achi evement: home environment; cultural capital, material deprivation; language (Bernstein); school factors, relationship between achievement by class in education and social mobility * Gender and educational achievement: feminist accounts of gender-biased schooling; the concern over boys’ ‘underachievement’ and suggested reasons; subject choice; gender identities and schooling * Ethnicity and educational achievement: patterns; reasons for variations; multicultural and anti-racist education; experience of minorities in different types of schools * The relationship between class, gender and ethnicity The effects of changes on differential achievement by social class, gender and ethnicity. 3 Relationships and processes within schools, with particular reference to teacher/pupil relationships, pupil subcultures, the hidden curriculum, and the organisation of teaching and learning * School processes and the organisation of teaching and learning: school ethos; streaming an d setting; mixed ability teaching; the curriculum; overt and hidden * the ‘ideal pupil’; labelling; self-fulfilling prophecy * School subcultures (eg as described by Willis, Mac an Ghaill) related to class, gender and ethnicity * Teachers and the teaching hierarchy; teaching styles * The curriculum, including student choice. The significance of educational policies, including selection, comprehensivisation and marketisation, for an understanding of the structure, role, impact and experience of education * Independent schools * Selection; the tripartite system: reasons for its introduction, forms of selection, entrance exams * Comprehensivisation: reasons for its introduction, debates as to its success * Marketisation: the 1988 reforms – competition and choice; new types of schools (CTCs, academies, specialist schools, growth of faith schools) * Recent policies in relation to the curriculum, testing and exam reforms, league tables, selection, Special Educational N eeds (SEN), etc * Recent policies and trends in pre-school education and higher education. The application of sociological research methods to the study of education * Quantitative and qualitative data in education; the dominance of statistics (eg exam results, league tables) * Positivist and interpretivist approaches as applied to education * Issues, strengths and limitations and examples of the application to the study of education of the main sources of data studied (see Sociological Methods section): * questionnaires o interviews (formal/structured; informal/unstructured) o participant and non-participant observation o experiments o use of documents, official statistics and other secondary data * The theoretical, practical and ethical considerations influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and the conduct of research on education. Part Two of Unit 2: Research Methods Quantitative and qualitative methods of research; their strengths and limitations; research design * The difference between quantitative and qualitative methods, primary and secondary methods and source, strengths and limitations, using concepts such as validity, reliability, representativeness * The main factors influencing research design * The research process: main stages. 2 Sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews, participant and non-participant observation, experiments, documents and official statistics; the strengths and limitations of these sources * Through a range of examples students should explore the strengths and limitations in different areas of sociological research of each of the named methods * This should include the types of questions asked, different types of interview and of observation, and the range of documentary and other secondary sources; the value of pilot studies; triangulation; ways of selecting samples. The distinction between primary and secondary data and between quantitative and qualitative data * Primary and secondary data: difference, value of each to sociological research, ways of evaluating usefulness of secondary data * Quantitative and qualitative data: difference, value of each in sociological research, ways of presenting different types of data. 4 The relationship between positivism, interpretivism and sociological methods; the nature of ‘social facts’ * The differences between the positivist and interpretivist approaches, related to choice of method and to issues such as validity, reliability and representativeness, quantitative and qualitative data * The nature of social facts: awareness of the relationship between the research process and social life. The theoretical, practical and ethical considerations influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and the conduct of research * Theoretical considerations including the theoretical position of the researcher, issues of validity and reliability, the type of data required * Practical considerations including costs, time, access to respondent s, sample size * Ethical considerations including the interests of researcher and respondents, the researcher’s responsibilities to all involved in the research process, the rights of respondents; issues of anonymity, confidentiality and disclosure. Study of the British Sociological Association’s ethical guidelines is recommended. Websites http://atschool. eduweb. co. uk/barrycomp/bhs/ A very good school-based website with links to a range of content, revision materials, ‘duffers guides’ etc for AS and A2 Sociology. www. esociology. co. ukAnother good school-based website, includes information on education and methods at AS level and crime and deviance at A2. chrisgardner. cadcol. ac. uk/ Sociology Learning Support site with interactive tests and quizzes, good for revision. sociology. org. uk/drevise. htm Sociology Central website produced by Chris Livesey, a Sociology teacher, with specific links to AQA Sociology at AS level. www. s-cool. co. uk A good revision site with an A Level Sociology section. www. sociologyonline. co. uk Site covers good introductory materials (e. g. on gender, class, feminism) and information on some of the big thinkers (e. g.Durkheim, Marx and Weber) www. soc. surrey. ac. uk/sru/ Useful information on a range of sociological research methods, produced by the Sociology Department at the University of Surrey. http://media. pfeiffer. edu/lridener/DSS/ ‘Dead Sociologists Website’ providing summaries and links to information for key Sociological thinkers of the past. sociologyexchange. co. uk/index. php mainly provided for teachers, but lots of resources available to download tutor2u. net/blog/index. php/sociology/ blog site highlighting news stories and developments, with some resources. Good for keeping up to date with contemporary developments in sociology.

Thinking machines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Thinking machines - Essay Example This paper conducts an analysis of its subject in the form of a qualitative content analysis of relevant available literature. A multi-dimensional approach is adopted to incorporate all perspectives in the analysis. These include perspectives of philosophy, mathematics, language, and related specialized sciences such as Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence, Neuroscience, Robotics and Natural Language Processing. Literature on the Turing Test has also been examined and analyzed to gauge its applicability on modern-day machines. Literature from these diverse subjects of study has been qualitatively analyzed in this chapter in search of a conclusive answer to the central question of the paper. This chapter begins with an analysis of the human thinking process based on the approach of computer science and natural language processing. The objective of the analysis was to define the human thinking process in a quantitative manner and then compare it quantitatively with the functioning of a computer system. The next section of the chapter concentrated on trying to develop a possible mathematical model of the human thinking process based on neuroscience and analyzed by a philosophical approach. Thereafter, the chapter present analyses of the different perspectives held on the subject by related specialized disciplines. These disciplines include Artificial Intelligence (AI), Robotics and Neuroscience. The chapter then takes on an analysis of the Turing Test to gauge its efficacy as a test for human-level intelligence in machines. The chapter is rounded up with an overview in the form of a summary. The literature review conducted for this study was successful in finding the answers to many of the research questions. With regards to the first research question, while Philosophy holds that the human mind itself may not be

Money and banking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Money and banking - Essay Example Jefferson argues that since no mention of any mandate was present, Congress had no such right. Hamilton dismissed Jefferson’s arguments by citing that Congress has â€Å"necessary and proper powers† to implement the nation’s fiscal and monetary policy. He added that a central bank fits perfectly into this scheme, by making it easier for Congress to do the job. If there were one central bank coordinating all banks, Congress could easily hold one accountable. Eventually, Hamilton’s arguments won, and this would set the practice of establishing central banks for the years to come, beginning with the First Bank of the United States of America. (Johnson 7) This should be viewed actually as the triumph of the power of money over democracy. Money could be represented by paper marked by the government as legal tender. In itself, it is harmless to democracy. But left to the hands of unscrupulous individuals and bankers, money can be used to damage democracy as can be seen in the succeeding events. During the term of James Madison, the bill seeking to renew the First Bank’s Charter was defeated by a narrow margin. Madison liked the outcome, but chaos ensued. The War of 1812 made the US Government to focus its effort in surviving against England. As a result, state-chartered banks began issuing different fiat currencies with little value. Proponents of central banking then blamed Madison for such troubles. Near the end of his term, Madison was forced to sign the charter of the Second Bank of America, as this was the popular clamor of Representatives. (Johnson 9) Thus, although there were hopes that democracy will prevail over the system of credit, central banking won. This episode illustrates clearly the fact that because of money, efforts to implement what is good for the general public can be undermined. Fast forward to 1907,

Tort Law Essay Example for Free

Tort Law Essay After reviewing the facts, I would advise Jason, Penny and Fancy Fashions, Ltd. of their possible causes of action vis-à  -vis the parties who may be held liable for damages for their negligence, namely, Alice, Joyce, the junior doctor, the nurse who administered the anti-tetanus serum, and Richard’s Teaching Hospital.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In particular, I would advise Jason to take legal action against Alice, the learner driver, for damages sustained by him as a result of the collision with her automobile.   My advice is based upon the fact that Alice is liable for actionable negligence. Traditionally, the elements of a cause of action for negligence are: (1) a duty to use reasonable care; (2) a failure to conform to the required standard; (3) a reasonably close causal connection between the conduct and the resulting injury, commonly called â€Å"proximate cause† or â€Å"legal cause†; and (4) actual loss or damage to the aggrieved party (Prosser 1982).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Alice did not comply with her duty of seeing to it that her act of driving does not result in injury to another.     Ã‚  Knowing that she must be particularly careful at a road portion designated for people crossing, she should have slowed down.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Her not exercising reasonable care while driving is the proximate cause of the accident, which resulted in actual damage to Jason.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I would, however, caution Jason that the task of proving the negligence of Alice would not be easy or simple. The fact of the accident occurring having been proved, Jason would now have to show that Alice was negligent, and that such negligence is the proximate cause of his injury.   To do this, he has to show that Alice fell short of the standard of care required, that is, she failed to do â€Å"what a reasonable, prudent person would do under the same or similar circumstances† (Prosser 1982).  Ã‚   Jason may argue that in determining negligence, the law makes no distinction as to whether or not the defendant is a learner driver or an experienced professional, that what is expected of Alice is that standard of care expected of a reasonable man   in order to prevent a foreseeable wrong.    A reasonably diligent person ought to be aware that pedestrian crossings are designated passageways for people and that it is a basic rule among motorists to exercise due care when approaching such crossings.  Ã‚   As every learner driver ought to know, one of the fundamentals of safe driving is to be always alert at pedestrian crossings; traffic signs are adequate warning to this effect.  Ã‚   Thus, a reasonably diligent driver should approach such crossing with caution by slowing down , his foot poised to hit the brake pedal if necessary.   Judicial notice may be taken of the fact that braking is one of the first skills taught a learner driver.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In fine, Jason would have to satisfy the court: (2) that the negligence of Alice is the proximate cause of Jason’s injury, and (2) that there is no contributory negligence on his part.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Proximate cause has been defined as â€Å"that act or omission which immediately causes or fails to prevent the injury; an act or omission occurring or concurring with another which, if it had not happened, the injury would not have been inflicted.† (Tennessee Trailways, Inc. v Ervin, Supreme Court of Tennessee, 1969).  Ã‚   In the instant case, the omission of care on the part of Alice as she approached the pedestrian crossing would have prevented the accident; thus her negligence is the proximate cause of it. Jury instructions in the state of Texas define proximate cause as â€Å"that cause which, in a natural and continuous sequence, unbroken by any new and independent cause, produces an event, and without which cause such event would not have occurred; and in order to have a proximate cause the act or omission complained of must be such that a person using ordinary care would have foreseen the event, or some similar event, which might reasonably result therefrom.   There may be more than one proximate cause of an event.† (Prosser 1982).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Since contributory negligence either bars the victim from award of damages or reduces the amount thereof, the defendant would probably adduce evidence of contributory negligence on the part of Jason.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Alice may contend that Jason is solely to blame for the accident. He should have realized that in his drunk condition he is prone to danger from passing vehicles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alice would attempt to show that a drunk person may not invoke his state of intoxication to evade responsibility for his own negligence, and that Jason ought to have foreseen the possible consequences of his crossing the street while drunk.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In U.S. courts where the doctrine of contributory negligence is still in force resort has sometimes been made to the old common law doctrine of â€Å"last clear chance†: a plaintiff is allowed to recover damages upon showing that the defendant had the last clear chance to avoid the accident. Under this doctrine, the later negligence of the defendant makes him liable for negligence on the assumption â€Å"that he is the more culpable whose opportunity to avoid the injury was later.† (Kansas City Southern R. Co. v Ellzey (1927) However, the said doctrine is history for being manifestly â€Å"inequitable in its operation because it fails to distribute responsibility in proportion to fault.† (LI v Yellow Cab Co. of California Supreme Court of California, 1975).   Ã‚  Ã‚  In the United States, the last clear chance doctrine appears to have been modified or superseded by the theory of comparative or gross negligence or a combination of both, and the issue of determining the best principle to be applied in such cases is now being shifted to the legislative branch.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the United Kingdom, contributory negligence is provided under statutory law.  Ã‚   A plaintiff who is found to be liable thereto may recover damages subject to a reduction to an extent to be determined by the Court.  Ã‚   As provided under Section 1(1) of the Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act of 1954, in cases where contributory negligence occurs, â€Å"the damages recoverable in respect thereof shall be reduced to such extent as the Court thinks just and equitable having regard to the claimant’s share in the responsibility for the damage.†   In view thereof, I would advise Jason that the damages to be awarded him in case of a favorable verdict shall be reduced as the Court shall see fit upon a finding of contributory negligence on his part.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Regarding the question of whether or not Jason’s act of walking in the pedestrian crossing while drunk constitutes contributory negligence, I submit that, yes,   it may possibly be so construed.  Ã‚   Alice may invoke the aforesaid statutory provision stating that contributory negligence occurs when there is a sharing of fault by both parties.     She may likewise cite the ruling in Froom v Butcher (1976), where the Court held that â€Å"negligence is a man’s carelessness in breach of duty to others.   Contributory negligence is a man’s carelessness in looking after his own safety. He is guilty of contributory negligence if he ought reasonably to have foreseen that, if he did not act as a reasonable prudent man, he might be hurt himself.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  However, I maintain my position that Jason’s crossing the street â€Å"oblivious to all traffic† does not ipso facto show that he was aware of a foreseeable harm to himself.  Ã‚   A person crossing a street is not expected to be always on the lookout for learner drivers while doing so; they rely on the fact that any motorist is aware of its being a pedestrian crossing and should observe proper care when approaching and passing through it.  Ã‚   Every pedestrian or motorist always assumes that the other person behind the wheel knows what he is doing. Whether drunk or alert, one cannot possibly foresee that a particular motor vehicle is being driven by a negligent driver.   In the case of O’Connel v Jackson (1972) (where an employee rode on a traxcavator against orders, thereby exposing himself to danger, and was crushed when another vehicle rammed into it), it was opined that â€Å"foreseeability is not the decisive test of causation.   It is often a relevant factor, but it is not decisive.†Ã‚     Inasmuch as foreseeability is not decisive, Jason may disprove contributory negligence by showing that he could not have foreseen being struck by a learner driver’s car as he crosses the street. I submit that Alice may not evade liability through negligence by showing that she could not have foreseen that a drunk person would ignore the flow of traffic.   Ã‚  If that reasoning were allowed,   a lame person, an unassisted child or elderly person,   a blind man walking with a cane, or any person with disability who take the pedestrian crossing (and who are perfectly aware of the possibility, however remote, that they would be hit by an oncoming car) would also be liable for contributory negligence in the event of an accident.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Contributory negligence must be proven in court; it cannot be presumed.   In a U.S. case, the plaintiff was injured by a passing train owned by the defendant who was then walking â€Å"on defendant’s right-of-way along a much-used path at the end of the crossties of its main track† and was hit by an open car door.   The jury found that â€Å"plaintiff’s injuries were caused by his own negligence.† However, in a certiorari before the Circuit Court of Appeals, the appeals court held that â€Å"the evidence required a finding that plaintiff was guilty of negligence that contributed to cause his injuries.†Ã‚   Accordingly, judgment below was reversed.   (Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thus, a very drunk person crossing a street cannot be presumed negligent; his contributory negligence must be proved to bar a claim for damages.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As regards the liability of the ambulance driver, I submit that both Jason and Penny as well as the owner of Fancy Fashions Ltd. have a possible cause of action against Joyce, the driver of the ambulance owing to his presumed negligence.  Ã‚     Ã‚  The fact that the accident occurred while he was in an emergency situation does not free him of responsibility.   Citing several U.S. court decisions, Prosser (1982) noted: â€Å"It is obvious, and elementary, that the care required by the standard of the reasonable man will vary according to the risk.   As the danger increases, the actor is required to exercise caution commensurate with it, and to be more careful.† He also took note of other decisions which insist that â€Å"there are no degrees of care but merely amounts of care, greater or less, that the care required of the actor is always the same under the traditional formula, that of a reasonable man under like circumstances; and that the greater danger, or the greater responsibility are merely circumstances that require of him a greater amount of care.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In proving the negligence of Joyce, the crash of the ambulance driven by him into the shop of Fancy Fashions, Ltd. is a case where the maxim of res ipsa loquitor may be applicable.     A Tennessee court held: â€Å"Where a motor vehicle, without apparent cause, runs off the road and causes harm, the normal inference is that the driver was negligent, and res ipsa loquitor is usually held to apply† (Tenessee Trailways, Inc. v Ervin (1969).     However, pursuant to the said doctrine, the running off the road of a vehicle may not be construed as negligence per se, but only gives rise to three different effects: â€Å"(1) It warrants an inference of negligence which the jury may draw or not, as their judgment dictates. (2) It raises a presumption of negligence which requires the jury to find negligence if defendant does not produce evidence sufficient to rebut the presumption. (3) It not only raises such a presumption but also shifts the ultimate burden of proof to defendant and requires him to prove by a preponderance of all the evidence that the injury was not caused by his negligence.†Ã‚  Ã‚   If Joyce would be able to show that he did exercise reasonable care in driving the ambulance, and that there was an intervening cause (such as a third party that could have caused him to swerve off the road), the presumption of negligence arising from the maxim of res ipsa loquitor would be overcome.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The three plaintiffs may implead in their action the employer of the ambulance (St. Richard’s Teaching Hospital), being jointly liable for failing to exercise due diligence in the hiring of driver.  Ã‚     Under the principle of vicarious liability (respondeat superior), the employer is responsible for the negligence of his employee which results in injury to another.  Ã‚   Pursuant to this doctrine, â€Å"an employer will be liable for the negligence of an employee committed while the employee is acting in the scope of his employment.   An employee acts in the scope of his employment when he is doing something in furtherance of the duties he owes to his employer . . .† (Lundberg v State Court of Appeals of New York, 1969).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With respect to the damage sustained by Jason arising possibly from the administering of antibiotics, I would advise Jason that he may have an actionable right against the junior doctor (and against the hospital for vicarious liability), provided that Jason would be able to produce expert testimony that the combination of alcohol and antibiotics, with or without the jolting caused by the ambulance crash, would have produced the injury, and regardless of whether or not the junior doctor consulted the surgeon.  Ã‚     I base my advise on the doctrine of informed consent which requires a physician to fully disclose to his patient the possible consequences of a given treatment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  In Scott v Bradford (1979), the Supreme Court of Oklahoma stated:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the law does not permit a physician to substitute his judgment for that of the   patient by any form of artifice. Consent to medical treatment, to be   effective, should stem from an understanding decision based on adequate      information about the treatment, the available alternatives, and the collateral   risks. . . If a physician breaches this duty, patient’s consent is defective, and   physician is responsible for the consequences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As in the case against Alice, I would advise Jason that the recovery of damages against the junior doctor would depend upon the findings of the trial court, i.e., a question of fact to be determined on the basis of the evidence.   Moreover, the defendant physician may contend that the doctrine of informed consent is not absolute; there are exceptions, such as when the information is already obvious or known, or in case of an emergency wherein the information might alarm the patient and aggravate his condition. The doctor might contend that since his primary duty is to do what is best for his patient who is unconscious anyway, he cannot be held liable for withholding information.   As enunciated in Canterbury v Spence ( 1972), â€Å"the patient has the burden of going forward with evidence tending to establish prima facie the essential elements of the cause of action.  Ã‚   The burden of proving an exception to his duty and thus a privilege not to disclose, rests upon the physician as an affirmative defense.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Under the first rule, the junior doctor may not be held liable solely on the ground that he did not consult the surgeon who performed the operation on Jason, his skill or competence being presumed.  Ã‚   But assuming it is proved that the jolting in the ambulance did not contribute to or cause the paralysis but only the antibiotics treatment,   Ã‚  the legal task of proving negligence on the part of the junior doctor would still be an uphill battle.  Ã‚   The defendant would enjoy the presumptions under the first and fourth rule: he is presumed competent, and is likewise presumed as not negligent.    On the other hand, Jason would have to prove that his administering antibiotics to Jason despite his being intoxicated with alcohol is contrary to or deviates from the standard of good medical practice in the community. In Boyce v Brown (1938), the issue was whether the taking of an x-ray of the plaintiff’s fractured ankle was considered standard practice (it was not).     Ã‚  Such question regarding standard practice may only be resolved by the testimony of experts in the medical field.     Thus, Jason and company must present affirmative evidence of negligence, such as the failure of the junior doctor to comply with the recognized or standard procedures in such cases, resulting in the injury.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As regards the nurse who administered the anti-tetanus injection, the above rules would likewise have to be applied.   If it is considered standard procedure in hospitals or in the medical community to test a patient for allergy before being given a drug which may have fatal effects in case a patient is allergic thereto, her failure to observe or comply with the said standard resulting in injury to Penny, in addition to the other elements stated above, would make her presumptively liable for malpractice.  Ã‚   The nurse may contend in her defense that the allergy test is not standard or customary practice (if such is indeed the case), and that this rule (otherwise known as the locality rule) should not be applied anymore by the courts owing to the growing variance in the knowledge and skill of physicians throughout the country and the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If the evidence would warrant a finding of liability due to negligence on the part of the nurse, I would advise my client to implead the attending physician who had given the order to the nurse, as well as the hospital on the ground of respondeat superior.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Suppose Jason proves his case against Alice, a question arises as to what extent she would be liable for damages in view of the fact that the injuries suffered by Jason may have been aggravated by the ambulance crash.   In such case, the damages shall be apportioned on the basis of the liability of the parties responsible for the first and the second accident. The Colorado Court of Appeals, deciding Bruckman v Pena (1971) cited   â€Å"the general rule that one injured by the negligence of another is entitled to recover the damages proximately caused by the act of the tort-feasor, and the burden of proof is upon the plaintiff to establish that the damages he seeks were proximately caused by the negligence of the defendant.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Subject to the above qualifications and views, Jason, Penny and Fancy Fashions Ltd. may file the appropriate action for damages which will be determined by the evidence presented in court.   Such awards may include but are not limited to medical expenses, the loss of earnings as a result of injury or incapacity, and moral damages due to the pain and suffering caused by the defendants’ tortious acts or omissions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Finally, I would advise Jason, Penny and Fancy Fashion, Ltd. that despite the wealth of jurisprudence on tort cases, there is no clear-cut approach to a particular case, and the outcome of the cases they would file in court would depend most entirely on the evidence they would present during trial, and how the trier of fact would evaluate them. REFERENCES Boyce v Brown (1938) 51 Ariz. 416, 77 P .2d 455 Bruckman v Pena (1971) 29 Colo. App. 357 Canterbury v Spence (1972) 150 US. App. D.C. 263, 464 F. 2d 772 Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938) 304 U.S. 64 Froom v Butcher (1976) QB 286, 291 Kansas City Southern R. Co. v Ellzey (1927) 275 U.S. 236 Larson v St. Francis Hotel   (1948) 83 Cal.App.2d 210 LI v Yellow Cab Co. of California (1975) Supreme Court of California Lundberg v State Court of Appeals of New York (1969) O’Connel v Jackson (1972) QB 270 Prosser, W. Wade, J. Schwartz, V. Cases and Materials on Torts (1982). 7th edition. New York, Foundation Press, Inc. Scott v Bradford (1979) 606 P.2d 554   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tennessee Trailways, Inc. v Ervin (1969) 275 U.S. 236

The Role of Propoganda in the American Revolution :: Essays on American Revolution

The colonists during and before the Revolutionary War believed that they had many well-thought reasons to rebel against England. Some of the most popular reasons would have to be the concept of "Taxation without representation" and the famous Stamp Act. Many colonists were not so concerned with taxes so they sided with the reason of the British restricting their westward expansion. But those colonists who did not go along with those excuses for rebellion just plain hated the British for invading their homes. But a single question arises: "What put all of these strong feelings toward Britain into the minds of the colonists?" The answer is simple: Propaganda. Many of the colonists along the coast began to thing that the land they were living in was beginning to become a little too crowded. The majority of these colonists looked to the land west of the Appalachian Mountains, but there was one problem. In 1763 King George III created something known as "The Proclamation of 1763". The Proclamation of 1763 restricted the colonists in the English colonies from moving westward into the lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. It also forced those who had already settled west of the Appalachians to go back to the eastern side. King George III made this law because he wished to keep peace with the Natives and keep the taxpayers paying taxes. He succeeded partially, but he also managed to confuse and upset a large amount of the colonists. Another problem that made the colonists angry was the Quartering Act. The Quartering Act stated that the colonists must house British soldiers and pay for their expenses. Nearly every colonists was affected by this, even if they did not house a soldier, because the British soldiers would attempt to find odd jobs in their off hours. Thus, the colonists would be in direct competition with the British soldiers for jobs when the colonists were already underpaid due to taxes, such as the Stamp Act. Taxes were a hard part of every day life in the colonies. Many of the taxes Britain placed on the colonies seemed to be very unreasonable to the colonists. One such example of the unreasonable taxes is the Stamp Act. The Stamp Act was put in place to help pay for some of the cost from the French and Indian War. Everything from newspapers to playing cards was taxed. This infuriated the colonists greatly, because the tax from the Stamp Act affected every one in the colonies in some way or another.

Reality and the Existence of God Essay

When Descartes decided to tear down his beliefs and start fresh, he needed a foundation upon which to build his ideology. When judging what reality is, God must be considered. He/she must be taken out of a religious concept and proven to exist, exist in a way in which we cannot be deceived into only thinking is real. The proof of the existence of God in this way forms the backbone of Descartes’ further forays into proving what is reality. God, being the supremely powerful, all-knowing all-seeing force that created the world and everything in it, was central in most 17th century philosophies. When investigating the importance of god in Descartes’ philosophy, one must first understand the science of the times. The basic principle of mechanism is that everything in the universe could eventually be explained in terms of mechanical laws, and with these laws there is no free will. The universe moves like a complex clock, with everything pre-determined and in accordance with the laws of matter. Pierre Simon de Laplace stated â€Å"We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect of the past and the cause of the future. An intellect which at any given moment knew all of the forces that animate nature and the mutual positions of the beings that compose it, if this intellect were vast enough to submit the data to analysis, could condense into a single formula the movement of the greatest bodies of the universe and that of the lightest atom; for such an intellect nothing could be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes. † (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Mechanism_%28philosophy%29) Unfortunately for mechanism, the mind is impossible to define in mechanical terms, as it is not a corporeal substance that can be measured. Descartes responds to this problem with dualism, saying that the mind is a â€Å"thinking thing† which is the essence of himself. This â€Å"thing† doubts, believes, hopes and thinks, all the while existing only in a metaphysical sense as a non-extended, thinking thing; while the body is a non-thinking, extended thing. With this he had a clear and distinct idea of both mind and body, and whatever he could conceive, God could create. This led him to believe that the mind could be separate from the body, a substance whose essence was thought. Thus the idea of dualism was founded by the existence of God. As Descartes did not completely agree with mechanism or materialism, he had to essentially obliterate all his beliefs, wipe his proverbial slate clean, and start again. To reevaluate what was real and what was false, Descartes had to doubt everything, including the existence of God, and if he/she exists, whether or not God was a deceiver. Descartes put forward the question of whether or not there are any attributes to the idea of God which couldn’t have originated in himself, God being â€Å"infinite, eternal, unchangeable, independent, supremely intelligent, supremely powerful†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He came to the conclusion that none of these attributes could have come from him alone, as he possesses none of them. In this sense, God must exist. He then postulates the hierarchy argument, where the idea of God could not have been thought of by him, or man in general, as the attributes seen in God belong to some higher form. It does not matter that he cannot â€Å"grasp the infinite†, or touch the attributes of God as he himself is finite; the very nature of something being infinite is that it cannot be grasped by something finite. Thus, since the ideas of God are in some higher form, they must be the truest and most clear and distinct of all Descartes’ ideas. He then decided to ask how he could have received the idea of a perfect being from God, as he has never encountered such from the senses. He comes up with the idea of a craftsman, who, when he invents something, may fiddle and change parts of his creation as he chooses. The idea of God, in Descartes’ mind, could not be changed or interfered with; therefore he could not have created it himself. This leads to the belief in the idea of God being innate in him. He again uses the idea of a craftsman, with the idea of God as a â€Å"mark of the craftsman† stamped on his work, man. Descartes’ then postulated that he could not exist with the innate idea of God in his mind without God existing. This fostered his belief that God could not possibly be a deceiver, since for something to be fraudulent or deceitful it has to have some defect, which in God there is none. This began to form the foundation on which Descartes would continue to prove existence through methodical doubt. After he determined that yes, God exists, Descartes turned his attention to truth and falsity. He has determined that God would never deceive him, as wanting to deceive is a sign of malice or weakness, traits not pertaining to God. If God, then, does not deceive him, errors on his part must be of his own judgment. He uses God as a benchmark, saying he is somewhere between God and nothingness, between supreme being and non-being. In meditation number four, again he uses the craftsman analogy, that the more skilled the craftsman, the more perfect the creation. Since God created Descartes, he must be perfect, which leads him to believe that his making mistakes may be better than not doing so. Human free will is an issue that philosophers of every generation tackle in some form or another, and Descartes was no exception. When dealing with will, he believed that will is simply one’s ability to do or not do something, to accept or reject a proposition. This will is such that when a decision is presented to us, we have no sense that we are pushed one way or another by any external forces. He believed that freedom is strengthened by natural knowledge and divine grace, and that since God gave him the power of willing, it cannot be the cause of his mistakes. Simply, a mistake is made when one’s will extends beyond their intellect, when one applies will to matters they do not understand. This philosophy states that God has given him the freedom to choose his destiny in situations of which he does not have complete understanding, a view quite inconsistent with the beliefs of the time. Descartes could not have been an atheist and have come to the conclusions he did. The science of the time was a rigid belief that everything in the universe was bound by the laws of matter, and that it moved like a complex clock, everything pre-determined from the time it was created. A strong supporter of the idea of dualism, Descartes believed that the mind was not bound by the laws of matter and was intangible, a substance whose essence was thought. Since God created him, whatever he could conceive could also be created by God which is the founding principle of dualism. When he began to tear down his belief system, he needed a foundation on which to build his new knowledge. He proved the existence of God by using the hierarchy theory, that since none of the traits of God could be attributed to himself, they must have come from God. With this knowledge, Descartes tackled truth and falsity, the essence and existence of material things, and the real distinction between mind and body. All of which in some for or another were based on his foundation: that God exists and is not a deceiver. If he could prove the existence of God through methodical doubt, he could prove anything. He made this quite clear near the end of his fifth meditation; â€Å"I see plainly that the certainty and truth of all knowledge depends strictly on my awareness of the true God. So much that until I became aware of him I couldn’t perfectly know anything.

A Doll House relationship comparison Nora and Torvald v....

Joseph Igoni Block 5 1/22/13 Nora and Torvald v. Christine and Krogstad Henrik Ibsen creates many interesting and complex characters in his play A Doll’s House. Both the Helmers and Christine and Krogstad have very fascinating relationships. Nora and Torvald have a very insubstantial relationship in which Nora has no say or independence and is completely under Torvald’s control. Christine and Krogstad have their share of issues but they are able to work them out like reasonable adults. Nora/Torvald and Christine/Krogstad are two fundamentally different sets of people. Nora and Torvald have been married for a long time and they do their best to make sure they are happy. Nora loves Torvald very much and would do anything to†¦show more content†¦Christine loved Krogstad but at the time he did not have the money she needed to insure that her family would be taken care of. Krogstad was devastated after Christine left him, which made him into a bitter, unhappy man. â€Å"Krogstad: When I lost you, it was as if all the solid ground went out from under my feet. Look at me now–I am a shipwrecked man clinging to a bit of wreckage.† (Act III) Krogstad secretly still loves her and in the end they get back together. The one fundamental difference between the Helmers and Christine and Krogstad is that they were able to work out their problems and solve their issues like reasonable adults. Henrik Ibsen creates a fascinating tale filled with intrigue and set of characters that make for a great story. The Helmers and Christine and Krogstad have very different perceptions of what love is. The key to any healthy relationship is to be able to work out your problems and not let anything get in the way of the love felt for the other person in the relationship. Nora and Torvald in the end weren’t meant for each other and Christine and Krogstad, after working out their differences were able to continue on happily. Nora/Torvald and Christine/Krogstad truly are two fundamentally different sets ofShow MoreRelatedA Doll House by Henrik Ibsen7379 Words   |  30 PagesMa. Jennifer S. Yap Dr. Sherwin Perlas World Literature January 14, 2012 A Doll House by Henrik Ibsen Translated by Rolf Fjelde I. Introduction During the late nineteenth century, women were enslaved in their gender roles and certain restrictions were enforced on them by a male dominant culture. Every woman was raised believing that they had neither self-control nor self-government but that they must yield to the control of a stronger gender. John Stuart Mill wrote in his essay, â€Å"The Subjection